How to get to the supreme court - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 1 Words: 412 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2019/08/19 Category Law Essay Level High school Tags: Supreme Court Essay Did you like this example? Introduction/ what he did to get to the supreme court: As a young child Taft dream job was to reach the Supreme Court justices eventually he did both becoming our 27th president and the 10th Chief Justice, he was born in Cincinnati Ohio on September 15, 1857 he was part of a political family where he follows his family tradition, he also went to private school, attend to Yale which joins the now notorious society skull and bone and graduated 1857. Furthermore, he attended the University of Cincinnati College of laws school, earning a bachelor in 1880, later he was accepted to Ohio state bar association were he was an assistant prosecutor of Hamilton county in 1887-90, and u.s solicitor general, u.s circuit court judge 1892-1900, governor of the Philippines 1901-04. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "How to get to the supreme court" essay for you Create order Works Prior to Supreme Court: He received two offers to become a justice of the supreme court but, denied it, he was appointed to the federal circuit for the 6th District, where he served from March 1892 until 1900 However President Warren G Harding on June 30, 1921, decided Taft, Should be chief justice of United States Supreme Court. During a secret session, the Senate approved Taft with 60-4 vote. Political leaning: Taft had different points of views, he would like to break from the party and his former party. His job was helped secure passage of the Judges Act of 1925, allowing the supreme court to receive cases that were national importance, He also improved the organization and efficiency. Major cases: In 1926, Taft ruled on the Myers v. United States, which he disproves an act of limiting the presidents authority to remove federal officials and more. Taft says to deny the president that power wouldnt allow him to discharge his own constitutional duty of seeing that law be faithfully executed. he also wrote a decision in Truax u. Corrigan and more. Reputation as a Supreme Court Justice:He was highly successful throughout his position and was respected figure, he had a vision when it comes to things, and if he didnt like them he would do his best to bring it to success. And as deciding in an issue he doesnt like to decide quickly, he likes to see all side of the argument. Conclusion: As a result, as being successful throughout his life he did many thing, such as increased the supreme court power, he convinced congress to pass the judge bill of rights in 1925, He died on march 8, 1930 for a heart ailment at age 72.

The Operational Definition Of Bipolar Disorder - 1578 Words

In life people go through experiences that cause their moods to change for the better or for the worse. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the operational definition of bipolar disorder, identify the additional specifiers, comorbidity, prevalence and discuss the cost of treating the disorder. Also, a detailed explanation will be provided about the population most impacted by the selected disorder and evidence-based approaches to assessing the disorder will be presented. In addition, evidence-based treatment approaches to address the disorder will be displayed. Last, a summary will be shared by relating an intervention from the evidence-based treatment approach to each of the themes of School of Social Work Advocacy, Empowerment and transformation. Overview of Bipolar Disorder Bipolar disorder, or manic depressive disorder, is a disorder characterized by extreme mood changes. People with this disorder undergo unusual shifts in his or her mood, activity levels, energy and the ability to carry out daily activities (National Institute of Mental Health, n.d.). A person can go from being very outgoing and energetic to feeling irritated and worthless over a period of a few days, months, or even years. People with bipolar disorder experience â€Å"mood episodes†, represented by a drastic change in a person’s unusual mood or behavior (National Institute of Mental Health, n.d.). A manic episode he or she may experience is overexcited and overly joyful; however, someone in aShow MoreRelatedComparing Two Treatments For Bipolar Disorder874 Words   |  4 PagesComparing Two Treatments for Bipolar Disorder Bipolar disorder is a mental health issue that affects millions of people worldwide. It is typically treated with a combination of mood stabilizers and antidepressants. It can take a patient and their doctor a long time to find the right combination of medications to effectively treat their bipolar disorder. Some individuals do not find much comfort in any level of the traditional medications and continue to struggle with their depression. Recently,Read MoreCollege Students Exposure to Mental Illness743 Words   |  3 Pagesthe often stereotypical beliefs that African American and Hispanics are more susceptible to depression and the mental illness bipolar disorder. The behaviors of students who believe they take on a high or extreme level of stress (either personal or educational) are studied and surveyed then compared to the signs and symptoms of depression and the mental illness bipolar disorder. Upon reading this proposal students and peers should consider their own lives as wel l as the lives of those who attended collegeRead More Apples to Oranges? (Suicide Attempters VS Suicide Completers)1669 Words   |  7 Pagesarticle. Since the research is conducted within the Major Depressive Disorder population, the more suitable title of the article should read â€Å"Apples to Oranges?: A direct comparison between suicide attempters and suicide completers in Major Depressive Disorder population.† The authors write the research article in simple and concise manners. However, it would have been helpful to the readers if the research report contains the definition of terms section in an abstract. The authors write with the assumptionRead More2301 Final Exam Workbook Essay6573 Words   |  27 Pagesvariable amounts of time. One group of participants was kept awake for 24 hours, and the other was kept awake for 48 hours. During periods of forced wakefulness, participants were required to engage verbal learning tasks such as memorizing the definitions of obscure English words. At the conclusion of the period of forced wakefulness, participants were allowed to sleep for as long as they wanted to. When participants awakened, researchers tested them on the learning tasks they completed duringRead MoreEssay about 2301 Final Exam Workbook 2 6510 Words   |  27 Pagesvariable amounts of time. One group of participants was kept awake for 24 hours, and the other was kept awake for 48 hours. During periods of forced wakefulness, participants were required to engage verbal learning tasks such as memorizing the definitions of obscure English words. At the conclusion of the period of forced wakefulness, participants were allowed to sleep for as long as they wanted to. When participants awakened, researchers tested them on the learning tasks they completed duringRead MoreIncarceration of The Mentally Ill Essay1771 Words   |  8 Pagesfacilities or prisons. Definitions Mental Illness The Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (2000) explains the complexity of defining a mental disorder, â€Å"although this manual provides a classification of mental disorders, it must be admitted that no definition adequately specifies precise boundaries for the concept of mental disorder. The concept of mental disorder, like many other concepts in medicine and science, lacks a consistent operational definition that covers all situations†Read MoreMy Personal Definition Of Nursing1925 Words   |  8 Pagespaper is for me to be able to provide a personal definition of our discipline’s fundamental concepts with supporting examples from my own nursing experiences, to attempt in providing a reason for my own definition, and to identify which paradigm it closely signifies. Reflecting upon and analyzing this topic will surely challenge my existing view of nursing which in turn will help me develop the confidence in my own nursing practice. Concept definitions and meaning perspectives Person A person for meRead MorePsychology Workbook Essay22836 Words   |  92 Pages | |Psychoanalysis |Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung,, Alfred Adler |-Unconscious motives of experience.in early childhood and | | | |governed by personality and mental disorders. | |Humanistic |Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow |-Free rational beings with the potential for personal | |psychology | |growth fundamentally different fromRead MoreTheoretical Perspective On Behaviorism Theory Essay2881 Words   |  12 PagesJames Watson opined that psychology is a purely experiment based branch of natural science with its objective being predication and control. It is also said that the components of a theory must be simple. Behaviorists proposed the use of operational definitions (Sammons, 2014). (C) Behaviorism is fundamentally concerned with observed behavior than with internal factors like emotions and thinking: Behaviorism theorists often acknowledge cognitive factors. However they prefer to work with observableRead MoreIntro to Psychology: Chapter Notes 1- 54753 Words   |  20 PagesAinsworth: attachment theory * Elizabeth Loftus: Researched memory Lo5: How psychologists study behavior and mental processes (p.12-23) * principles of critical thinking * Be skeptical * insist on evidence * examine definitions of terms * examine premises or assumptions of arguments * be cautious in drawing conclusions from evidence * Do not over simplify or overgeneralize * apply to all areas October 24th, 2012 Chapter 2- Biology and psychology

Social Studies Form 2 Free Essays

Section A : INDIAN OCEAN 1. The largest ocean in the world is A. Pacific Ocean B. We will write a custom essay sample on Social Studies Form 2 or any similar topic only for you Order Now Arctic Ocean C. Indian Ocean D. Antarctic Ocean 2. The line of latitude that divides the world into two is A. Tropic of Capricorn B. Tropic of Cancer C. Equator D. Greenwich Meridian 3. Which stretch of water is found between East Africa and Madagascar? A. Mozambique Channel B. Red Sea C. Arabian Sea D. Persian Gulf 4. Very long ago , the eastern coast of Africa was peopled by a mixture of different tribes who spoke A. Creole language B. English language C. Arabic language D. Bantu language 5. The musical instrument used by Indonesians very long ago was known as A. flute B. valiha C. guitar D. tabla 6. Four thousand years ago , Egyptians used to sail to the country of Punt which is actually A. the coast of Somalia B. Kenya C. Tanzania D. Uganda 7. Four thousand years ago , Egyptians used to sail to the country of Punt which is actually A. the coast of Somalia B. Kenya C. Tanzania D. Uganda 8. From what animal is ivory obtained ? A. Cattle B. Camel C. Sheep D. Elephant 9. Which one of the following statements describe plantation farming? A. A company like LONRHO cultivating sugar cane on a large extent in Mauritius. B. A planter cultivating vegetables on a small plot of land. C. A small land holder cultivating tea in Mauritius. D. A man cultivating pineapples for his own use. 10. The Arabs travelled in ships called A. Canot `a balancier B. Bateau cousu C. Dhows D. Chinese Janks 11. Why did Vasco da gama sail close to the Eastern coast of Africa ? A. They could stop in any country in case of difficulty. B. They had heard of its great wealth. C. They were the greatest European sailors of the time. D. They wanted to trade with Indians. 12. Why are some tankers not able to pass through the suez canal? A. Because are too big B. Because are too small C. Because the roads are renovated D. Because there was no petrol How to cite Social Studies Form 2, Essay examples

Hydroponics Gardening Without Soil Essay Example For Students

Hydroponics: Gardening Without Soil Essay Have you ever thought of growing plants without soil? A science known as hydroponics will allow you to do just this. Hydroponics systems have been used since the time of the ancient Babylonians who used them to used them to grow their famous hanging gardens. Today, all around the world, fruits, vegetables, flowers, and ornamental plants are grown using hydroponics. The word hydroponics was derived from the Greek words hydros, meaning water, and ponos, meaning labor, or literally, water working. Hydro-ponics is simply growing plants in a water and balanced fertilizer solution. It is rapidly becoming the most common way of growing speciality crops and crops that require special conditions to grow. We will write a custom essay on Hydroponics: Gardening Without Soil specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Hydroponics is also known as Soilless/Controlled Environment Agriculture. This means that plants are grown without soil in greenhouse environments in which everything from the amount of nutrients applied to the temperature and humidity can be monitored closely. Greenhouses are ideal for hydroponics systems because they have their own climate. New types of greenhouses are designed to distribute light from the sun during the day to promote better plant growth and retain heat at night which saves on fuel. These greenhouses are quickly becoming choice places for growers to set up their hydroponics systems. These set-ups are increasing yields and decreasing plant loss which is more profitable for the grower. Speciality crops such as tomatoes, lettuce, cucumbers, and hot peppers, which cannot be grown conventionally all year long, are being grown in hydroponically. These vegetables which were previously scarce in some seasons will be plentiful all year. Hydroponically grown vegetables can be harvested year ?round so even regions that have harsh winters, or short growing seasons can enjoy these special crops anytime. One fruit that is especially hard to find at certain times of the year is the strawberry. The strawberry industry is beginning to convert from the traditional soil grown berries to the hydroponically grown variety. This drastic change was brought about by an upcoming ban on methyl bromide, which is used to fumigate strawberry plants. If the plants are not fumigated, yields drop, pests destroy the leaves and roots of the plant, as well as, the fruit. Scientists at the Appalachian Fruit Research Station in Kearneysville, West Virgina have transplanted many varieties of strawberries, previously grown in the soil, into a hydroponics system. They added the nutrients the plants normally received from the soil directly into the water. The results of the experiments have been good. Each of the plants were healthy and each yielded between one and two pounds of fruit. The strawberry experiments were not totally problem free. The researchers had problems with mites, thrips, and powdery mildew on the foliage of the plant. To solve pest problem the researchers used beneficiary predatory mites to rid the plants of the tiny parasites. To get rid of the mildew the researchers regulated the humidity level in the green house so prevent the mildew from growing on the leaves. Another industry that utilizes hydroponics is the flower industry. Holland is a main supplier of roses to the United States, and almost all of their flowers are grown hydroponically. Herbs such as cilantro, oregano, and dill are also being grown hydroponically. Ornamental plants are also being grown hydroponically. Flower shops and nurseries can have plants that are usually out of season at some time, all year long. The advantages of hydroponically grown crops are significant. The fruits and vegetables have superior taste, appearance, and quality. There are no weeds, cultivation, and no soil borne diseases or insects. All the plants receive the same amount of water and nutrients. Due to the closed circuit nature of the systems less water and less fertilizer is needed. All of these things make hydroponics a practical way to grow some crops. .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a , .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a .postImageUrl , .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a , .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a:hover , .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a:visited , .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a:active { border:0!important; } .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a:active , .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u3d68d40a2379570912f090346b03f95a:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Road Not Taken EssayCommercial growers often use a product known as Perlite as a growth medium in their hydroponics system. Perlite is a volcanic glass formed when lava cools rapidly trapping water. The glass is crushed and heated to very high temperatures. From this comes a soft mineral foam. This foam can hold large amounts of water, and has a neutral pH. These two factors make it ideal for a growth medium. There are certain nutrients that are needed to make a quality nutrient solution for a hydroponics system. These elements are Nitrogen, Potassium, Phosphorous, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulfur, Manganese, Iron, Copper, Zinc, and Chlorine. They are essential to a plants growth and development. Most of them are absorbed from the soil. Many growers argue that hydroponics are not as good as organic gardening, but the majority of the results show that their is not much difference as far as yields are concerned. The main difference in the two methods of growing is the way the plant receives the nutrients. Hydroponics has many advantages that make it an excellent alternative to conventional growing methods. With the amount of research being done to perfect the various methods of hydroponic growing, the future of many speciality crops looks bright. Many researchers propose using hydroponics in areas where the soil quality is poor farming space is limited. Some researchers even propose using hydroponics in space, if human colonies are ever settled. Hydroponics may not be the best way to grow for everyone but it seems to be a very feasible alternative to traditional growing. Many positive results show that hydroponics have a definite place in the future of growing.

Forms of Democracy

Size and the Two Forms of Democracy Chapter 20 presents democracy in the society as a component that varies both qualitatively and quantitatively whenever a difference of interest occurs. If there is a conflict of interest, democracy seems to be of a higher value. Stakes are raised at this point with the different lines of argument becoming bolder.Advertising We will write a custom book review sample on Forms of Democracy specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Each group pushes hard for its interests and opinions compared to when it agrees on everything. This case attracts too many assumptions. The writer finds that common interests are easily achievable in small groups because people at this level tend to fine-tune what afflicts them. In large groups, opinion tends to be further divided. This situation makes it difficult to reach a consensus to a problem. Small groups have a problem since their power is not increased. At the same time, the groups’ power diminishes when brought to the big stage. As the chapter reveals, whereas small groups have the power to control their small civil order, small political units have remarkably a little effect on them. This claim qualifies the sense for having them. However, it is evident that this decentralization is costly though empowering to the small units due to economic and ecological interdependence. The protection of citizens’ interests in terms of equality between small governments and bigger governments is not definite. Thus, the size of government cannot be clearly evaluated on this case. The participation gap between the rich and the poor in small constituencies is almost equal due to the narrowed approach and limited consensus between the two groups. The author reveals that self-selection increases the groups’ homogeneity in terms of interests especially in small groups. On the other hand, expanding the group reduces the saliency of common interes ts during recruitment. Common interest cannot be viewed as the preserve for original members only in a group. It can also be acquired when members join the group because people acquire interests as they move. However, as the author points out, the strengths of an acquired common interest in a group are inversely related to its size. Therefore, they will tend to diminish as the size of the group grows. In this case, what seems so fundamental to a small group will tend to become diluted as the group grows with other issues coming in to compete for the same attention from the group. This case leads to further fragmentation of the group since the larger group is divided within itself based on the arising finer common interests.Advertising Looking for book review on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In the achievement of unanimity, small groups are better off doing this role by producing changes that will influence more o n their interests. This move can be attributed to the groups’ ability to find consensus in a disagreement. The ease in the achievement of consensus among small groups is adverted to the placement of a higher value of harmony of the whole group, as well as the ease with which members of the groups move into one direction. In avoiding conflict, small groups are usually driven by the fact that they are vulnerable when exposed to the large groups. They cannot cope with the sanctions that might be vented on them by the large groups. This strategy becomes a proper survival tactic for self-preservation. At the same time, lower levels of conflict in small groups enable them find solutions faster due to their ability to allow members enough time to give suggestions from which a solution is found. Therefore, the ability of people in the groups to identify each other face-to-face or to meet face-to-face gives them the feeling of empathy, which is a binding factor. The Conditions of Mode rn Democracy Chapter 6 that addresses ‘The Conditions of Modern Democracy’ presents democracy as a participation of the people in the election of their representatives to govern them. It is also described as a mass consent of the people to be ruled. Although peoples’ representatives are elected to make laws on behalf of the people to govern them, democratically made laws must adhere to the respect of individual liberties, as well as human rights. At the same time, it is difficult to gauge the true democratic governance compared to gauging undemocratic governance. Thus, democracy is simply a political rule to the author. The writer finds that it is easy to evaluate democracy in governance by comparing its ideals with the worst form of government in relation to when one compares it with the best ideals that are supposed to define it. In the real sense, true democracy (perfect democracy) is not achievable at any time due to the realities of nature that also govern p eople’s lives. Democracy flourishes in truth, openness, and criticism when compared to autocracies since a change of governance does not lead to a change of a system when a particular group exits a democratic society. The systems will undoubtedly remain. Although parliaments elected by the people are supposed to represent them, they are perfect tools for mobilizing consent at the same time besides representing the already existing consent. A democratic society allows a free flow of information as well as its usage. The society has come up with better solutions compared to autocracies because the retribution for making a mistake in a democratic setting is less severe in relation to the same in an autocratic society.Advertising We will write a custom book review sample on Forms of Democracy specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Trilemma of Democratic Reform ‘The Trilemma of Democratic Reform’ represents democracy as a process that offers a chance for political equality. However, political equality is not the only option to inclusion. A democrat’s perfect belief lies in political equality, mass participation, as well as deliberation as ways to achieving the inclusion. The author interrogates the credence of democratic institutions that do not give mass participation an equal chance to elect leaders. In this case, he cites the United States of Americas Electoral College system as one of the democratic institutions that do not allow mass participation thus inhibiting mass consent. The author cites three processes that would make the democratic process complete. Starting with deliberations, the author finds that people will vote from a misinformed point of view without proper deliberation on issues, which negates the purpose of democracy as a way of coming up with the best decisions. The decision of voting in a certain direction is influenced by so many things that the voter does not vot e as per his/her intuitions in the end. The influence of the elite and the chances of ones party winning have been cited by the author as some of the issues that drive voters in certain directions. The author breaks down some issues under reflection that should be used as parameters for measuring deliberation on matters that are subjected to poll. The author further says that there will be varying issues during deliberation in both the large and the small groups due to perceived competences. Therefore, without information flow in a deliberation, all decisions reached by the voters might be biased due to misinformation. This book review on Forms of Democracy was written and submitted by user Ernest Cameron to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Silk Production and Trade in Medieval Times

Silk Production and Trade in Medieval Times Silk was the most luxurious fabric available to medieval Europeans, and it was so costly that only the upper classes- and the Church- could attain it. While its beauty made it a highly-prized status symbol, silk has practical aspects that made it much sought-after (then and now): its lightweight yet strong, resists soil, has excellent dyeing properties and is cool and comfortable in warmer weather. The Lucrative Secret of Silk For millennia, the secret of how silk was made was jealously guarded by the Chinese. Silk was an important part of Chinas economy; entire villages would engage in the production of silk, or sericulture, and they could live off the profits of their labors for much of the year. Some of the luxurious fabric they produced would find its way along the Silk Road to Europe, where only the wealthiest could afford it. Eventually, the secret of silk leaked out of China. By the second century C.E., silk was being produced in India, and a few centuries later, in Japan. By the fifth century, silk production had found its way to the middle east. Still, it remained a mystery in the west, where artisans learned to dye it and weave it, but still didnt know how to make it. By the sixth century, the demand for silk was so strong in the Byzantine Empire that the emperor, Justinian, decided they should be privy to the secret, as well. According to Procopius, Justinian questioned a pair of monks from India who claimed to know the secret of sericulture. They promised the emperor they could acquire silk for him without having to procure it from the Persians, with whom the Byzantines were at war. When pressed, they, at last, shared the secret of how silk was made: worms spun it.1 Moreover, these worms fed primarily on the leaves of the mulberry tree. The worms themselves could not be transported away from India . . . but their eggs could be. As unlikely as the monks explanation may have sounded, Justinian was willing to take a chance. He sponsored them on a return trip to India with the objective of bringing back silkworm eggs. This they did by hiding the eggs in the hollow centers of their bamboo canes. The silkworms born from these eggs were the progenitors of all the silkworms used to produce silk in the west for the next 1,300 years. Medieval European Silk Producers Thanks to Justinians wily monk friends, Byzantines were the first to establish a silk production industry in the medieval west, and they maintained a monopoly on it for several hundred years. They set up silk factories, which were known as gynaecea because the workers were all women. Like serfs, silk workers were bound to these factories by law and could not leave to work or live elsewhere without the permission of the owners. Western Europeans imported silks from Byzantium, but they continued to import them from India and the Far East, as well. Wherever it came from, the fabric was so costly that its use was reserved for the church ceremony and cathedral decorations. The Byzantine monopoly was broken when Muslims, who had conquered Persia and acquired the secret of silk, brought the knowledge to Sicily and Spain; from there, it spread to Italy. In these European regions, workshops were established by local rulers, who retained control over the lucrative industry. Like the gynaecea, they employed mainly women who were bound to the workshops. By the 13th century, European silk was competing successfully with Byzantine products. For most of the Middle Ages, silk production spread no further in Europe, until a few factories were set up in France in the 15th century. Note 1The silkworm isnt really a worm but the pupa of the Bombyx mori moth. Sources Netherton, Robin, and Gale R. Owen-Crocker, Medieval Clothing and Textiles. Boydell Press, 2007, 221 pp. Compare prices Jenkins, D.T., editor, The Cambridge History of Western Textiles , vols. I and II. Cambridge University Press, 2003, 1191 pp. Compare prices Piponnier, Francoise, and Perrine Mane, Dress in the Middle Ages. Yale University Press, 1997, 167 pp. Compare Prices Burns, E. Jane, Sea of silk: a textile geography of womens work in medieval French literature. University of Pennsylvania Press. 2009, 272 pp. Compare Prices Amt, Emilie, Womens lives in medieval Europe: a sourcebook. Routledge, 1992, 360 pp. Compare prices Wigelsworth, Jeffrey R., Science and technology in medieval European life. Greenwood Press, 2006, 200 pp. Compare prices

Goldman Sachs unethical behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Goldman Sachs unethical behaviour - Essay Example This implies that the responsible players at the helm of its management should operate its functions devoid of the slightest mistake that could cause a multiplier effect of unpleasant results across the board. Flouting basic business ethics in such a sensitive system could perhaps amount to the worst ethical bleach of this age. Informed from such a global perspective, this section of this discourse assesses the conduct of one of the players at the helm Wall Street to find its credibility from a business ethics perspective (US Senate, 3). Operations of the Wall Street are largely accused of the downfall of the US economy from 2008, due to unprecedented departure from safety lending regulations particularly in the financial services sector. The most affected were mortgage, debt and stock markets whose effect spilled over into the other financial institutions in such a rate that almost paralyzed the entire economy. Sooner than later, the global economy were feeling a pinch of the spiraling impact. A leader in the mortgage business was perhaps more responsible than many more players in the market. Goldman Sachs happened to be one of the main two players in the infamous mortgage market immediately before the collapse of the Wall Street in 2008, alongside Deutsche Bank. The conduct of Goldman Sachs in terms of ethical responsibility it had to observe demonstrates incompetence due to a number of abuses. Firstly, the manner in which mortgage and other related securities were handled in the unstable market left a lot to be desired (Griffin, 94). Goldman Sachs participated in the design of a risky complex securities system whose failure orchestrated the downfall of several aspects of the market. The mortgage instruments designed by Goldman Sachs and other players were complicated in such a manner that the derived securities became more valuable than the original instruments of trade in the market. Goldman Sachs was aware of

Continue to the previous topic (internet) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Continue to the previous topic (internet) - Essay Example People need information but this particular type of information should be controlled so that it does not negatively impact on the interests of a certain group of people in a given country. The first reason why the internet should be censored is that the responsible authorities know the cultural values and norms they should preserve in their country given that each nation has its own culture which makes it distinct from other cultures. For example, the aspect of homosexuality is a taboo in other countries while it is allowed in other nations (Naik, 2010). In order for the countries that do not recognize homosexuality to protect their norms and values, they should censor the internet and remove this content from different web pages that are likely to be accessed by different people in their respective countries. This will help protect the interests of the citizens. This disrupts the moral fabric of the society and it can also be seen that unity is also created if people have a common u nderstanding towards something. The internet has no boundaries and dominant nations use this medium to impose their cultural values over other weaker nations. Therefore, individual countries should protect their cultures through internet censorship. The second reason why the internet should be censored is that individual countries are in a better position to regulate information so that it does not disrupt peace in that country. There is a tendency by other powerful nations to dominate weak countries through disseminating distorted information that is likely to affect peace in weaker nations. Each country has its own way of governing its people hence the need for these countries to put measures in place that are meant to protect the interests of the whole nation. The information accessed from the internet may suggest that other countries are ruled by bad leaders and this can lead to conflicts hence the reason why nations should regulate the information disseminated through the inter net. Research has shown that other powerful nations want to impose their hegemonic control over other weaker nations through the use of distorted information to such nations (Naik, 2010). The other important reason why censorship of the internet is important is that it helps to curb dissemination of illicit content and material like pornography to the people. This particular type of content corrupts the mind of people and it can impact negatively on their behaviour. The dissemination of illicit material may be against the values of a certain group of people hence the need for them to put measures in place that are meant to protect these important components of their life. Therefore, I think individual countries should have measures that are designed to prevent their interests such as internet censorship given that this medium of communication has no boundary. It is very important to preserve culture in each country so that people can be in a position to maintain their identity. A cr itical analysis of an article entitled â€Å"Internet Censorship Pros and Cons† by Abhijit Naik Published November 25, 2010 shows that to a larger extent, â€Å"such regulations are necessary to keep certain problems, such as sexual exploitation of children and spread of drug cartels at bay.†

U.S. trade with the European Union Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

U.S. trade with the European Union - Essay Example Mercantilism is referred to as the first reasonable systematic body of thought devoted to international trade. The 20th century marked an era in which international trade boomed across the world. The United States was in the forefront of trade as this nation became the most powerful country in the world after the U.S. successfully won World War II. During that time a lot of European nations became allies of the United States. Trade between the United States and Europe increased substantially during this time. A major event that changed the course of history in Europe was the creation of the European Union and adoption of the Euro currency among member nations. The Euro was created a year before the turn of the century on January 1, 1999. This major event in the economic system of Europe positively impacted trade with the United States. The Euro solidified the economic position of many member nations that had weak currencies prior to the adoption of the Euro. The purpose of this paper is to discuss international trade between the United States and Europe. Importance of trade International trade is composed of the exports and imports a nation has with other countries. Exports can be defined as the amount of goods and services that a country sells to another nation, while imports are the amount of goods and services that a country buys.... The revenues generated from exports increase the amount of wealth of a country. The balance of trade between two nations is calculated by subtracting imports from exports. The desired outcome for a country is to have a positive trade balance with a trade partner. It is beneficial for a country such as the United States to have lots of trade partners. Having lots of trade partners is beneficial because it improves the opportunity of increasing exports and imports. Another good strategy for a country like the United States is to improve relations with another particular country in order to spur economic activity between both nations through the use of international trade. The United States and Europe during the last 14 years have increased their trade activity as a direct consequence of the creation of the European Union. Trade between the United States and Europe The United States and Europe are two of the biggest players in the international community. In the past trade between these two nations was scattered because many European nations had weak currencies and economic systems. All that changed in 1999 when the Euro was adopted as a common currency in Europe. Having a common currency simplified transactions. The table below shows the amount of exports and imports of the United States with Europe since 1997. Year Imports Exports Balance 1997 163272.5 181439.7 -18167.2 1998 170008.4 202873.7 -32865.3 1999 171833.7 224790.2 -52956.5 2000 187448 256766.2 -69318.2 2001 181528.7 253776.8 -72248.1 2002 163626.4 260865.5 -97239.1 2003 173062.6 284596.9 -111534 2004 191789.8 321430.9 -129641 2005 209928.4 355247.6 -145319 2006 242993.6 384007.5 -141014 2007 283068.9 407473.8 -124405 2008 324997.1 435203.4 -110206 2009 258061.6

The Topic Of Spanking Children

The Topic Of Spanking Children One day last summer, I hung out with my friends Elizabeth and Kisha. Elizabeth is a young mother with a 3-year-old son named Raine. Elizabeth did not know how to control her son; on that day, the three of us went to a strip mall to shop for clothes, and Raine was with us. While we were shopping, Raine wandered off many times from his mother, and she rarely told him anything. Then, he threw huge tantrums whenever he saw something he could not have. I bit my tongue so much that day because despite how I felt about his behavior, it was not my place to tell anyone else how to raise his or her children. He was very bratty; he made a scene in a convenience store we all walked into, becoming disobedient and defiant with Elizabeth and screaming at her. Still, I said nothing out of good taste. Finally, the topic of whether or not I would make a good father came up because I saw a couple with children who were behaving well; I enjoy children when they are well-behaved. I was making no attempt to attack Elizabeths parenting even though her son was horrible. I was merely conjecturing my own capabilities at parenthood. I could no longer bite my tongue. The girl with the out-of-control child, of all people, had the audacity to imply that I may not be a good parent. Before I realized it, I told her, Well at least my children will know how to conduct themselves in public and will not talk to me any kind of way. He is clearing acting up and disrespecting you, but you refuse to spank him. Because of this, Elizabeth and I do not talk much anymore. I suggested that she spank Raine. She obviously did not believe in spanking bad children. I thought it was very foolish of her to have this mindset because she never employed any other disciplinary technique that was successful in altering his behavior. She, along with others, believes that spanking is wrong. I do not think that it is absolutely right, but I do believe that the positive outweighs the negative; parents should be allowed to spank their children when it is necessary. There is an appropriate way for parents to do this without abusing their children. Though, it is not absolute, spanking can still be very effective. Children are not perfect beings who do not make mistakes. Children need to be taught respect and appropriate behavior. They need to know that there are consequences for not following the rules. What exactly is spanking? Kazdin and Benjet define spanking as the act of hitting a child with an open palm on the buttocks or the extremities (hands and legs) with the intent to discipline without leaving any bruises or injuries (Kazdin Benjet, 100). Larry Winget, a father and also the author of Your Kids are Your Own Fault: A Guide for Raising Responsible, Productive, Young Adults, agrees with this definition and believes that spanking should be used to alter undesirable behavior in children, not to hurt them (Winget, 88). What is discipline? Any attempt to change or control a childs behavior is discipline (Brown, 69). Discipline can be divided into two sub-categories: autonomy-granting techniques and restrictive techniques. Autonomy -granting techniques allow a child to correct his or her behavior on his or her own accord. These techniques are generally non-punitive and include lecturing and oral disapproval. U. Bronfenbrenner affirms that middle class parents tend to use these t echniques which include reasoning, isolation, and guilt (Brown, 68). Research shows that families with higher socioeconomic statuses (SESs) tend to have punishments that are very lenient in correcting misbehavior. Restrictive techniques force a child to alter his or her behavior by incentive: punishment (Brown, 68-9). And obviously, spanking is a form of punishment, and therefore is included with time-outs, grounding, privilege revocation, and all other restrictive techniques. Whether or not parents should be able to spank their children, and to what extent, is a very controversial debate. Like any debate, there are contenders of the idea. These contenders make some valid, however flawed, statements against spanking. One is that spanking instills fear into children, and children who will comply with the rules via spanking will not do so out of respect; they will succumb out of fear (Davis, 141). Another argument is that spanking is abusive and condones violence as an acceptable way to solve a problem (Davis, 143). These claims are true only when the spanking turns into abuse. Davis included a question from a parent answered by M. Senn, an opponent of spanking. He asked: Q: Should I hit my child back when he hits me? A: No, you should not. If you strike him back, you are teaching him that the only way to respond in anger is by physical blows, and it may turn into a fist fight (Davis, 141). There is so much wrong with this all together. For one, if a child is audacious enough to hit his own parents in a non-life-threatening scenario, the ones who conceived him, then he deserves to be punished. He or she should also realize that if he or she has enough moxie to hit anyone, parent or not, then he or she should be brave enough to get beat down if it escalates to something more serious. In others words, do not throw a punch if you cannot take one. A child is headed in the wrong direction if he or she thinks that he or she can be violent without suffering any consequences. And, one can certainly not hit a random person out on the streets and expect not to be retaliated against. We live in a society where skirmishes turn into bloodbaths because people think that they can handle them with their fists. Ideally, fighting is not the answer, but parents should certainly not condone abuse by their own children. That is crazy. And if parents have to spank their children to convey th at message to them, then I support it one hundred percent. Tibbetts affirms that spanking is but a single act among many that supports civilized behavior against the natural barbarism of the American brat (Davis, 144). Leaving children undisciplined is like leaving people to anarchy; it just will not work. There are many adults who lack the judgment and reasoning capabilities needed to function in society. And, children are still developing mentally and physically in order to be able to cope as adults. Why would one assume that children, non-adults, will be fine if left to their own devices? Opponents of spanking believe that it encourages the development of bad character in kids; children who do not want spankings become very deviant by lying to avoid them (Davis, 140). However, one parent with an 8-year-old named George chose not to spank him and found that it permitted George to be dishonest and defiant. The father saw an improvement in Georges behavior after he decided to span k him and noted that he only had to spank his son a few times by the time George turned thirteen (Davis, 137). Opponents argue that the people who support spanking are religious fundamentalists who base their reasons to justify it on the Bible, a book that some, depending on their own particular beliefs, view as unsubstantial (Davis, 139). Proverbs 13:24 reads that he who spares the rod does not love his child, and that he who loves his child will discipline him or her promptly. Despite how one may feel about Christianity and the Bible, the practicality and cogency of this statement cannot be disputed. Only a negligent parent and fool will let his or her children run amok and not discipline them. And, one final belief that opponents share is that spanking is addictive because of its easiness to execute and gives parents the satisfaction of getting out anger (Davis, 142). Spanking should not be about seeking a thrill, getting revenge, or relieving stress on behalf of the parent. It s hould be simply to discipline the child and nothing more. Anything else and spanking is at risk of becoming abuse. Kazdin and Benjet agree that spanking isnt necessarily positive nor negative, but can be depending on other conditions. Spanking is negative only when it becomes abuse. Physical abuse is punishment that is severe, excessive, and physically harmful and dangerous to the child. Physical abuse can involve the use of objects. It is also noted to be directed at parts of the body that are not included in the proper definition of spanking: the buttocks or extremities (Kazdin Benjet, 100). Slapping a child in the face is considered physical abuse. Punching a child is definitely a form of abuse. Allow us to examine the movie Mommie Dearest. The film told the story of Christina Crawford, the adopted daughter of the late actress Joan Crawford. In the film, Christina and her brother were subjected to the harsh abuse and strictness of their mother. There was a scene in the movie when Joan was upset with Christina for hanging her own clothes with a wire hanger. Because of this, Joan beat Christina with the same wire hanger to teach her a lesson: do not hang your clothes with wire hangers. How preposterous does that sound? If that is not a clear image of physical abuse, then I do not know what is. There was no reasoning behind it. To say that the punishment was excessive would be an understatement; it was uncalled for, period. Joan Crawford must have had mental issues because responsible, mentally fit parents do not act this way. Another film depicting child abuse is Precious. The film depicted the life of a 16-year-old, African-American girl named Claireece Precious Jones who was obese, illiterate, and suffered severe forms of mental, physical, and sexual abuse from her parents. In one scene, Preciouss mother Mary attempted to hit her in the head with a cooking pot. This was because she thought Precious told an adult from her school to come to the house to discuss the benefits of education and alternative schooling with Mary in regards to Precious. Discussing education is a justifiable reason to try to give ones own child a concussion. The reality was that the adult came to Precious and Marys home of her own accord; Precious even warned the adult to not come because she knew Mary would react this way. In another scene, Mary forced Precious to eat a huge plate of pigs feet Precious made for Mary because it was not of her liking. She glared at Precious coldly, making sure that Precious ate every bit of it befo re she would make Precious cook dinner again, right this time. This was why Precious was morbidly obese. In yet another scene, Mary attacked Precious and her newborn when they finally came home after leaving the hospital. Mary did this because she was angry with Precious for coming clean to a social worker about the abuse she suffered. Mary was also jealous of Precious because Marys boyfriend (who was also Preciouss father) preferred to sleep with Precious and not her; both of Preciouss children, the newborn included, were products of rape from her father. In this scene, Mary waited for Precious to come home with the baby and asked Precious if she could hold him. Then, she told Precious to get her something to drink. While Preciouss back was turned, Mary tossed the baby to the ground and then threw a flower pot at the back of Preciouss head, causing it to shatter. She hurled more objects at Precious and cursed at her. She then charged at Precious, and a violent scuffle ensued. Lucki ly, Precious and her baby able to leave the apartment with minor injuries. Precious ran down the staircase with the baby and fell down; they both were miraculously fine. Fortunately, she moved herself and her child out of the way before a television came falling down the stair well from the floor of her mothers apartment; Mary, out of hate, tried to kill her own daughter and grandson. Although the Precious movie depicted an overly extreme case of physical abuse among other abuses, it defined it nonetheless. With that being said, proper spanking done from a responsible parent should never be mistaken for abuse. Spanking, when done properly, is actually a great tool for discipline. Studies show that 74% of American parents of children age seventeen and younger use spanking as a disciplinary technique while 94% of parents with children age three to four spank (Kazdin Benjet, 100). Spanking cannot be as bad as some people make it seem if virtually all parents do it. E.T. Gershoff concluded with an analysis of 88 studies that spanking had negative effects only when it was abusive (Kazdin Benjet, 100-01). Sweden passed a law in 1979 banning spanking to prevent child abuse. However, child abuse cases increased six-fold from 1981 to 1994 (Larzelere, 5). Spanking is not that issue that people should worry about; abuse is the issue. One father concurs that spanking prepares children for the real world; in the real world, people are punished for breaking the rules. He states, To have rules for behavior without the threat of physical punishment is like having laws without jails (Davis, 138). To the people who argue that spanking promotes fear in children, is fear really a bad thing? Is it not that same fear that prevents many children from getting in trouble in the first place? Is it not fear that scares adults from committing crimes that will otherwise put them in jail or prison? Is it not fear that promotes safety and good judgment in people anyway? People argue about deviant behavior to avoid punishment. If people, children included, are doing the right thing to begin with, then they should not have to worry about being punished. It is as simple as that. Let us consider the story of the little boy who burned himself after playing with the stove after his mother told him not to. She understood that the fire looked cool but advised him not to touch it because it will burn him. Out of his own defiance and curiosity, he touched the fire anyway and so forth. Analogously, spanking is the fire. He did not listen to his mother and had to suffer the consequences: being burnt. And ho pefully, he learned first-hand that fire burns and that he should not touch it if he does not want to get burnt again. Analogously, children should behave accordingly if they do not want any spankings. And, that is the practicality that makes spanking effective; it presents the child with an unfavorable outcome if he or she decides to be disobedient. Larry Winget agrees that children who are effectively and appropriately punished have more love and respect for their parents because their parents are showing that they care enough to correct potentially self-destructive behaviors in their children (Winget, 86); Janis Cambell believes that people tend to raise their children the way that their parents raised them (Cambell, 199). If this is true, then it is safe to say that Larry Winget respects and loves his parents, and they spanked him whenever it was necessary; he does the same to his children, and they love and respect him. Properly spanking a child when it is necessary can aid in ensuring that the child in question is not going down the wrong path and getting into trouble. Dianne is contemplating spanking her child. How does she go about it properly? Dr. Diana Braumrind states that Parents should first use verbal disciplinary reasoning to correct misbehavior. If that fails, then use non-physical punishments such as time-outs. If the problem persists, then use non-abusive spanking to correct the behavior (Larzelere, 4). Larry Wingets approach to discipline involves mak[ing] the punishment about the behavior and not about the person. With his experience as a father, he believes that parents should stress that they are spanking their children to alter their behavior, not because the children are bad people. He urges parents not to attack their childrens personalities (93). Doing so could potentially harm their mental developments. Winget continues by stating that parents need to make the punishment fit the crime (92). Do not spank a child if he or she forgets not to smack at the dinner table. Do not spank him when the both of you are at the grocery store and he asks for Skittles despite you telling him that you were not buying any candy prior to walking in. If you say no and he throws a massive tantrum and knocks items off the shelves, then spank him. Only spank a child when it is absolutely necessary. Winget affirms that anger is an appropriate response to [an] offense, and that a parent should wait to administer punishment because he or she may lose his or her temper and do something he or she may regret: seriously injuring the child (91, 92). Most of all, Winget stresses that a good parent will talk with his or her child so the child can have a better understanding of why he or she is being punished. Talking allows the parent to exercise judgment when listening to the child and figure out why the child did what he or she did so that the parent can determine how to punish the child. This can also help the parent to decide whether or not a spanking is even necessary (92-93). Good parents who spank their children are not the vicious , evil monsters that people believe them to be. The procedures mentioned by Braumrind and Winget show sympathy to the child. Although spanking can be a great means of discipline, it is not the most perfect method. No discipline is. However, it can be very effective. The first flaw with spanking is that it may not work on every child. Winget agrees that different kids require different punishments, and that spanking is an effective tool with some kids. Wingets son Tyler responded better to discussions and lectures while his other son Patrick responded better to being spanked (87; 88). The second imperfection with spanking is that its efficacy is subjected to severity and frequency (Kazdin Benjet, 100). Spanking loses its effectiveness when it is overused and is the only method of discipline, and it is very easy for parents to exhaust this method (Winget, 88). I can recall children from my childhood who were spanked almost everyday by their mothers and were still problematic. I remember these mothers spanking their kids and nothing else; they never asked them why did you do it? Rather, they found the neares t belt, or switch (long twig from a tree), or loafer and began whipping with the deepest frustration. In a study, Kazdin and Benjet found that occasional, mild spanking accompanied with other disciplinary techniques showed to be the most positive, effective form of punishment (101). One study states that parents from lower SESs tend to spank their children more while middle-class parents favored reasoning, isolation, guilt, and the threat of loss of love over spanking (Brown, 68). Researchers concluded that the parents of the lower SESs had higher levels of stress; stress is linked to physical abuse (Giles-Sims, Straus Sugarman, 171). However, M.L. Kahn did a study stating that working-class (lower SES) parents tended to spank when their childrens behavior was most extreme, but held back whenever they sensed that spanking was not the appropriate course of action (Brown, 68); These parents displayed good judgment while chastising their children. Though spanking is not the utmost, ab solute way of effective discipline, it can still be an effective tool when coupled with other methods and used with proper judgment. Despite all the benefits of spanking and the preponderance of parents who support it, society still frowns upon it. There are many people, doctors and others with merits, who consider proper, mild, non-abusive spanking still abuse. It has become a secretive thing for parents because of the taboo surrounding it despite it being legal; critics have been known to rebuff its legality by comparing it to cigarettes, saying that both are legal, harmful, and habitual (Davis, 142). This argument does not serve good parents who only seek to eliminate bad behavior any justice. Non-abusive spanking is not harmful, and the parents who are successful at correcting misbehavior do not have to spank frequently in order for it to become a habitual thing (Davis 137). With spanking becoming more, and more secretive, parents have been very conscious of how they discipline their children in public places. Parents who suffer the unfortunate circumstance of their children misbehaving in places like the groc ery store face a catch-22: being considered as unfit if they ignore it, or being viewed as abusive if they attempt to correct the misbehavior (Brown, 70). These parents worry about the nosy, meddlesome, old women who believe in all children being cherubs incapable of mischief. They worry about being scrutinized and ultimately reported to authorities for simply trying to raise children to the best of their abilities. Whenever a child is knowingly misbehaving the way children do from time to time, these old women tend to pardon it by saying, Oh, he is just being a kid. Dont punish him. But, whenever a child is extremely offensive, they have the temerity to question and challenge the parenting skills of the adult. Parents are embarrassed when their children act up in public and view it as an emergency situation because of three beliefs concerning parenthood in American society: that children turn out well with good parents, that contemporary parents are not as good as their predecessor s, and that there is no such thing as bad kids only bad parents (Brown, 70). Parents feel judged by these beliefs. With parents judgments conflicting with the mores, it is no wondering why there is so much controversy surrounding the right of parents to spank. While researching, I stumbled across some interesting facts. Studies show that fathers tend to spank their children more than mothers despite mothers being the main disciplinarians who also spend the most time with the children; mothers tend to yell at their children more (Cambell; 199, 202). I remember being spanked by my father more so than by my mom in my childhood. And I also remember her lecturing me more so than my father. Another fact is that younger parents are more likely to spank their children more than older parents (Giles-Sims, Straus Sugarman, 171). That caught my attention because I thought it would be the older group that favored spanking; the old people I grew up around where staunch advocates of spanking problematic children. Boys tend to be spanked more than girls (Giles-Sims, Straus Sugarman, 171). I can see this as being true because the boys I grew up with tended to misbehave more so than the girls. Parents who spank their children more than once often forget how many times they have had to so (Giles-Sims, Straus Sugarman, 171). Losing count is only expected for things that have been done with a sufficient amount of frequency. The final fact that I learned was that Caucasian parents are more likely to spank their children, despite other ethnic groups general acceptance it, particularly African-Americans (Giles-Sims, Straus Sugarman, 171). That, too, was interesting because I always thought Caucasians generally disagreed with spanking. There has been quite a handful of research done on spanking. The issue of spanking is one containing opposing view points. One side of the argument is in dissent about the issue, claiming that it is abuse while the other side supports it as an effective tool. Fact of the matter is, spanking definitely works and is very popular among American parents despite societal tendencies to discourage it. Ideally, if all children did not misbehave, then parents would not need to spank them. A mother in her right mind does not even want to think about spanking her child, let alone having to do it. It becomes a conflict for her because she will see her child misbehaving and know that she will have to spank him. I remember my own mother telling me that spanking will hurt her more than it will hurt me because I would eventually understand my wrong along with the consequences that entail. I would get over it; she, on the other hand, would bear the burden of her conscience because she would be placed in a position to where she would have to spank the child she loves so that he would learn to do better, not because she is angry. Non-abusive spanking should never become synonymous with abuse because abuse is detrimental; proper spanking is the opposite. Non-abusive spanking is not always the best solution, nor is it the only option to every crime committed by the child, but is very effective when done correctly; there is a proper way parents must go about executing it. And finally, there has been extensive research done on the topic. Parents should be allowed to spank their children so that they will become responsible adults with a great understanding of appropriate behavior to have in American society, or any society for that matter.

Explain giving examples how Woolworths should go about HR Planning? :: Business and Management Studies

Explain giving examples how Woolworths should go about HR Planning? Human Resource Planning (HR) is the identification of the future labour requirements needed by a company and how these are going to be met. It is the process by which a company ensures that it has the right number and kind of people, in the right places at the right time, doing the things for which they are economically most useful. It is a method for determining future human resource requirements and developing action plans to meet them. It is defined as a strategy for the requisition, utilization, improvement and retention of an enterprise’s human resources and it encompasses the subject concerned with the developing range of manpower policies, including those for recruitment, deployment, development and retention. The use of HR planning is a big issue for any company if they are to have enough staff to meet the future demand that the company may receive. The main issues to do with HR planning at Woolworths is that the company has a high labour turnover with many people moving on to a higher status job and the idea that people do not really want to work for the company which has resulted in large numbers of staff leaving the company. This is mainly due to a large number of the staff being part time students who are looking for temporary employment whilst they are finished their A level or decree courses. The four stages of HR planning that the business will need to consider are: * Stock taking * Forecasting the supply of labour * Forecasting the demand for employees * Implementation and review The first stage of HR planning that Woolworths will need to consider is the use of the Labour stock take. The purpose of the labour stock take is to find out exactly how many staff that the company has available to them after taking into consideration the number of staff that are leaving the company and the quality of the staff available to the company. When using a labour stock take, Woolworths should use a combination of job analysis and performance review, the use of a skills audit will be of little benefit to the business as this method assesses the skills and qualifications of the employee and little qualification is needed to work in the retail area that the business operates in, a combination of the performance review, this involves looking at the performance of all the employees within the organisation in order to identify staff potential and to identify where staff have more training needs. This will enable the business to. The use of the job analysis will enable the business enables the

Van Helsing and the Unorthodox Monster Narrative

Rebecca Scheinert Monsters and Myths September 16th 2012 Van Helsing and Unorthodox Monster Narrative Monsters have become a regular fixture in the contemporary movie industry but it is important to remember these supernatural creatures were born from ancestors in nineteenth century gothic literature. These creatures were a cultural product of the social, scientific, and psychological concerns of a society that had lost its faith in religion. Each monster was a manifestation of a ubiquitous fear that remains relevant today.In the 2004 film rendition of Van Helsing, the director Stephen Sommers calls upon the famed vampire hunter from Bram Stoker’s Dracula to restore order to a world interweaving the plots of Frankenstein, and The Wolfman. The hero of Van Helsing has been stripped of any memory of his character’s history and triumphs but must seek to vanquish his enemy aided only my the folklore of 19th century Eastern Europe. Without a sense of identity, Van Helsing acc epts this task joined by the beautiful Anna Valerious who is cursed by her ancestors’ promise to destroy Dracula.The duo must face endless threats, apply knowledge of the occult, and confront their inner demons to reach the climatic final battle with Dracula where they must cling to their disappearing humanity in a world of monsters. Although Van Helsing and Dracula are dramatic foils for one another, their similarities become as apparent as their differences as the storyline develops. In this final scene from Van Hesling, Stephen Sommers employs and distorts traditional monster mythology to prove to its viewers that the dichotomy between hero and monster is not mutually exclusive.Initially, the physical character of the scene is the vehicle that transports its viewers from the couch in 2012 to the recognized world of monster myths. The viewers’ acceptance of the setting is imperative because it invokes a â€Å"willing suspension of disbelief† from the audience in which the time-honored mythology of the classic monsters’ stories is embraced as historical fact (Tudor 121). The horror film genre employs setting conventionally â€Å"to facilitate our entry into the fiction† where the unbelievable characters and events are embraced (Tudor 122).For this particular scene, the audience finds the characters in an archetypical gothic setting, the laboratory where Frankenstein was created (Van Helsing). In the Gothic tradition, writers â€Å"built plots around restless spirits, ageless monsters, and unresolved sins of the past that reappear to bedevil modern characters† (Worland 12). Stephen Sommers places the characters in their imagined place and time by interweaving â€Å"Frankenstein’s middle-European village, Dracula’s Transylvanian mountains, and The Werewolf of London’s fog-shrouded setting† into a location familiar to the genre audience.In this scene, the nineteenth century stylized lab is tal l and imposing with rich architectural detail. In the darkness of night, moments before midnight as indicated by the baroque clock, clusters of fire and blue electrical charges are the only source light. The midnight hour is universal symbol for the time when monsters roam the earth while the men sleep (Philips 515). The evident destruction in the laboratory conveys that it has already failed terrifically. The setting is a reminder that in gothic horror the â€Å"stakes are high because the struggle is mortal and metaphysical† (Worland 17).This elaborate laboratory is paradoxical setting because the events are occurring in a time with scientific knowledge but in a part of the world that remains unchanged by industrialization. Furthermore, by combining Frankenstein and Dracula, the powers of science are directly conflicting with the religious themes of the legend of Dracula (Tudor 87). While inside the burning laboratory it is evident that both science and religion have failed the characters. The integration of the monster’s settings is only the first device Sommers plays with.Horror operates through the tried strategy of â€Å"placing stereotypical characters in cumulatively eventful situations† which is a structure the audience expects through out the movie (Tudor 112). The genre hero is titled by Andrew Tudor as the â€Å"expert† and given the responsibility of bringing the world or disorder back to order. When we enter this scene in the shambled laboratory, it is undeniably recognized as disorder. Tudor goes onto say that â€Å"Dracula’s traditional opponent, Van Helsing† is the common ancestor of all of the genre’s experts (114). The original bestows VanHelsing with the capability and knowledge to vanquish Dracula but was written as â€Å"scholastic and eccentric† as a fold to a vampires ruthless charm (114). Sommers introduces Van Helsing in this scene defeated by battle, fragile, limping, and gaspin g for breathe. Although he is introduced as man, the identifiable wolf scratches across his chest and the striking of the clock foreshadow his transformation into a werewolf monster. Sommers reminds the audience of the human expert and monster foil when Dracula enters as a flying monster and Van Helsing enters as a wounded human.The audience is aware they are rooting for Van Helsing and weary of Dracula. Furthermore, Van Helsing’s monster is a werewolf, who are seen as â€Å"demonic innocents† entangled in a â€Å"complex web of ritualistic expectations† (117). A werewolf is a sympathetic monster because the audience can compartmentalize the humanity from the lupine cruelty by his separate physical forms. Van Helsing reluctantly assumes his monster form writhing during his transformation. However, he embraces his fate by tearing off his jacket and engaging in battle.Van Helsing’s internal conflict between embracing his monster form to complete his task to vanquish Dracula and fearing the loss of his human control is illustrated when he frightens himself from his lupine form into his human form while choking Dracula. This narrative trick confounds an active audience who is inclined to remain loyal to the expert protagonist who has become what he is destined to destroy. In addition, the characterization of Dracula in the scene manipulates religious iconography to further the juxtaposition between religion and science that was introduced in the setting.In this scene Dracula exhibits the expected traits of a vampire when speaking in his human form. He is â€Å"elegant† â€Å"clean† â€Å"attractive† but â€Å"evil† and manipulative (116). Upon discovering Van Helsing is now a monster as well he tries to coerce him into joining his fight. Dracula sees all monsters as equals on the side of evil united against humanity and the greater good, as â€Å"a part of the same great game† (Van Helsing). Dracula is a satanic character, the of the evil side in the eternal battle between good and evil.This character parallel is supplemented by the physical characterization of Dracula in his monster form. Sommers employs the standard devil veneer with horns, wings, and red coloring as a universal symbol for evil. Dracula is charming and sophisticated in his human form but as a monster he is the hideous disconfigured archetype for evil. This proves to the viewer the humans can be monsters and the monsters can appear as humans. The naked eye cannot discern between what is evil and what is good, even when the monster is as obvious and Judeo-Christian devil.In these cases, Sommer’s is manipulating with the monster iconography by transforming orthodox characters. Monster iconography has â€Å"developed through statements, repetition, and variations that the audience has come to understand† (Worland 18). There is an expected viewer response of hatred for monsters and empathy for humans, which the director is playing upon. Through this device, he makes the social commentary that any man has the ability to become a monster and there is a monster in all of us.At the same time, he is loyal to the narrative by making the expert an empathetic monster and Dracula a deceiving monster. Ultimately, the audience’s psychological response to the scene is necessary for Sommers to manipulate the genre’s traditions and mythology effectively. Through out the scene there is a shock cycle of tension construction and release. Within the smaller context of a singular scene, the microscopic shock cycle will build and release pressure, keeping viewers engaged until end (Tudor 109).There is relief with the â€Å"grotesque and painful end† of Dracula. Rick Worland titles this event a â€Å"bad death† that challenges the traditional conceptions of mortality and the social good (8). The audience does not feel sadness for the revolting murder of Dracula but they ex perience devastation at the loss of Anna. Although Anna’s death is more troubling to the audience, the producers do not let us see her â€Å"bad death†. Anna is mauled by Van Helsing as a werewolf as well but in a moment of suspense and ambiguity we can only see the back of the werewolf’s body.While the audience watches this genre for the suspense and gore, it is still troublesome to see the end of the heroine. The audience can digest her death as a necessary sacrifice and the final shock rather than cruel an unusual when they are spared the visual impact of her death. This can also be looked at through a Freudian perspective. Freud advocated a â€Å"resonation of the return of any actions or desires repressed by the dominant social order† through experiences such as watching horror movies or nightmares (Worland 15).All of the audience members have felt repression, whether it is from an external societal source or an internal repression of feelings or mem ories. The monster is a manifestation of this repression. All varieties of repression can be overcome by vicariously living through this scene because the monster is both a triumphant hero and a defeated antagonist. In the end there is silence and the tension is released because both monster threats has been nullified. Antithetically, because of the dual bad deaths, the audience is left to contemplate if the ends justified the means.The audience has released their feelings of repression through the shock cycle but is left to contemplate the questionable victory and the tragic death long after the scene is complete. At the heart of this scene, Sommers challenges viewers to question the traditional protagonist and antagonist relationship in the movie and with the audience. He does this by presenting characters and settings that elicit expectations for the course of the scene’s plotline. Then, by choosing a different path, there is a psychological response from the engaged viewe r.Over the course of the brief scene, there are series of surprises that are not from the blood and gore but from the distortion of century old stories. At the conclusion of the scene, the audience has worked through feelings of repression by witnessing the destruction of two monsters and the death of two characters but are more importantly inspired to question what the true manifestation of good and evil are. Works Cited Phillips, William H. Film: An Introduction. Boston: Bedford/St.Martin's, 1999. Print. Tudor, Andrew. Monsters and Mad Scientists: A Cultural History of the Horror Movie. Oxford [England: B. Blackwell, 1989. Print. Van Helsing . Dir. Stephen Sommers. Perf. Hugh Jackman and Kate Beckinsale. Universal, 2004. DVD. Van Helsing . YouTube. YouTube, 16 June 2011. Web. 16 Sept. 2012. ;http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=jr60kvuKw3w;. Worland, Rick. The Horror Film: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. , 2007. Print.

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De creativiteit van de politieke cultuur †Nederlandse Essay

De creativiteit van de politieke cultuur – Nederlandse Essay Free Online Research Papers De creativiteit van de politieke cultuur Nederlandse Essay Als we proberen om het domein te omschrijven dat wordt bestudeerd door de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur, dan zullen in deze omschrijving de termen ‘politiek’ en ‘maatschappij’ niet mogen ontbreken. De geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur bestudeert immers de wisselwerking tussen enerzijds staat (of, inderdaad, politiek) en anderzijds maatschappij. Hierbij zijn ook informele aspecten van belang: zonder inzicht in de informele aspecten van politiek en maatschappij kunnen we nog maar weinig begrijpen van het daadwerkelijke functioneren van de politieke cultuur. Maar waarom is de bestudering van de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur zo belangrijk? Wat is het dat maakt dat dit profiel een grotere verklarende kracht heeft dan de andere profielen? Voordat ik deze vragen beantwoord moet eerst duidelijk worden dat de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur iets anders is dan de politieke filosofie – hoewel de geschiedenis van de politieke filosofie een inherent onderdeel is van de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur. De politieke filosofie houdt zich immers bezig met de beantwoording van de vraag hoe samenlevingen het beste kunnen worden ingericht. De geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur houdt zich vervolgens bezig met de bestudering van het daadwerkelijke functioneren van deze inrichting. Uit deze omschrijvingen blijkt evenwel dat de domeinen van de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur en de politieke filosofie zeer dicht bij elkaar kunnen liggen. Dat is echter niet noodzakelijkerwijs zo. In dit essay zal ik proberen aan te geven wat ik aantrekkelijk vind aan de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur. Hiertoe zal ik allereerst het bereik van dit profiel schetsen. Vervolgens zal ik aandacht schenken aan een benaderingswijze waarbij zowel wordt verwezen naar de politieke filosofie als naar de politieke realiteit. Hierbij zal ook het belang van deze benadering worden aangekaart; deze benadering geeft ons zeer specifieke inzichten in het functioneren van de historische en de hedendaagse politiek. In de conclusie zal getracht worden tot een omschrijving te komen van de aantrekkingskracht van geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur. Het bereik van de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur Wat betreft het bereik van de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur is het veelzeggend dat beoefenaars van de andere profielen aangeven dat de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur relevante antwoorden verschaft op vragen uit deze andere profielen. Laten we eerst kijken naar de studie van de internationale context. Carl von Clausewitz, de grote Pruisische strateeg, heeft geschreven dat â€Å"†¦ war is not merely an act of policy but a true political instrument, a continuation of political intercourse, carried on with other means. †¦ The political object is the goal, war is the means of reaching it, and means can never be considered in isolation from their purpose.† Als we oorlog als een voortzetting van diplomatie zien, dan kunnen we vervolgens deze uitspraak ook van toepassing laten zijn op het functioneren van internationale organisaties. En het functioneren van deze organisaties als instrument is afhankelijk van de doelstellingen zoals die in de verschillende pol itieke centra zijn vastgesteld. Het zijn de politici die het beleid bepalen, de diplomaten voeren het slechts uit – althans, dat proberen ze. Kortom: wie ook maar iets van het doen en laten van internationale organisaties wil begrijpen zal te rade moeten gaan bij de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur. Beoefenaars van de economische en sociale geschiedenis zijn decennia lang op zoek geweest naar de heilige graal: met behulp van mathematische modellen wilden zij de verklaring voor economische groei vinden. Vandaag de dag wordt echter – ironisch genoeg als uitkomst van de zogenaamde cliometrische revolutie – gewezen op tekortkomingen van deze methode. Historisch onderzoek is echter meer dan het bestuderen van cijferreeksen. In de economische en sociale geschiedenis hebben we immers niet te maken met abstracte modellen maar met de realiteit – wiskundige modellen zijn eenvoudigweg niet opgewassen tegen de complexiteit van economische activiteiten en economische verandering. Volgens de vooraanstaande New Economic Historian Douglass C. North zullen we om deze complexiteit enigszins te kunnen begrijpen aandacht moeten schenken aan instituties en hun werking op de sociaal-economische werkelijkheid. Maar wat zijn instituties? North omschrijft instituties als †¦ the humanly devised constraints that structure political, economic and social interaction. They consist of both informal constraints (sanctions, taboos, customs, traditions, and codes of conduct) and formal rules (constitutions, laws, property rights). Throughout history, institutions have been devised by human beings to create order and reduce uncertainty in exchange. Together with the standard constraints of economics they define the choice set and therefore determine transaction and production costs and hence the profitability and feasibility of engaging in economic activity. They evolve incrementally, connecting the past with the present and the future; history in consequence is largely a story of institutional evolution in which the historical performance of economies can only be understood as a part of a sequential story. Institutions provide the incentive structure of an economy; as that structure evolves, it shapes the direction of economic change towards growth, stag nation, or decline. Als we deze instituties aan het domein van een van de profielen moeten verbinden, dan komen we onverbiddelijk uit bij de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur. De geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur is immers bij uitstek het profiel dat zich richt op de inrichting en het functioneren van onze maatschappij. Problemen en oplossingen Hoe moeten we de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur benaderen? Ankersmit weet ons in het vierde hoofdstuk van zijn in 2002 verschenen boek Political representation te vertellen dat ieder politiek systeem kan – en moet – worden beschouwd als een specifiek antwoord op een specifieke politieke uitdaging. We begrijpen het functioneren van deze politieke systemen (en dus ook instituties) dan ook beter als we nagaan hoe ze zijn ingericht om specifieke problemen op te lossen. Volgens Ankersmit kunnen we de wortels van deze benadering vinden in een artikel uit 1953 van Quentin Skinner. Dit artikel wordt wel beschouwd als de grondtekst van de Cambridge school of political theory: The essential question which we therefore confront, in studying any given text, is what its author, in writing at the time he did write for the audience he intended to address, could in practice have been intending to communicate by the utterance of this given utterance. It follows that the essential aim, in any attempt to understand the utterances themselves, must be to recover this complex intention on the part of the author. And it follows from this that the appropriate methodology for the history of ideas must be concerned, first of all, to delineate the whole range of communications which could have been conventionally performed on the given occasion by the utterance of the given utterance, and, next, to trace the relations between the given utterance and this wider linguistic context as a means of decoding the actual intention of the given writer. De gedachtegang van Skinner komt er op neer, zo stelt Ankersmit in zijn Denken over geschiedenis, dat de teksten die politieke filosofen en theoretici schreven specifieke antwoorden waren op de voor hun tijd specifieke problemen. De gelijkenis tussen de in 1953 geà ¯ntroduceerde benadering van Skinner en de bijna vijftig jaar later voorgestelde benadering van Ankersmit is inderdaad opmerkelijk. Eigenlijk benaderen zij twee verschillende fenomenen op dezelfde manier: daar waar Skinner zich beweegt op het niveau van teksten, heeft Ankersmit juist aandacht voor de politieke praktijk. De vraag is waarom deze benaderingswijze nooit eerder is toegepast op representatieve democratie. Volgens Ankersmit is dit zo omdat we het feodalisme en het absolutisme veelal beschouwen als een soort flogiston. We hoefden de democratie maar (opnieuw) te ontdekken en iedereen zag in dat de andere twee systemen een dwaling waren geweest. Deze twee oudere praktijken werden dan ook niet serieus genomen. Het succes van de representatieve democratie hoefde dan ook niet verklaard te worden omdat het als vanzelfsprekend werd gezien. In een recensie betwijfeld Andrew Rehfeld of de door Ankersmit voorgestelde benadering wel zo nieuw is. Hierbij vraagt Rehfeld zich af wat het verschil is tussen de ‘nieuwe benadering’ van Ankersmit en de these van de padafhankelijkheid. Als deze benadering inderdaad een vorm is van padafhankelijkheid, dan zou Ankersmit (waarschijnlijk) onbedoeld tegemoet komen aan de suggestie van North om de idee van padafhankelijkheid te verbreden naar de institutionele context. Laten we eerst recapituleren wat padafhankelijkheid behelst. J.W. Drukker omschrijft in zijn De revolutie die in haar eigen staart beet hoe Paul David op het formuleren van deze these kwam. Het uitgangspunt van David was de configuratie van het qwerty-toetsenbord. Bij dit toetsenbord zijn de letters zo geplaatst dat bij het schrijven van een willekeurige Engelse tekst de kans op het jammen van de stalen armen van de machine zo klein mogelijk is. qwerty garandeerde zo een efficià «ntieoptimum en werd de wer eldwijde standaard. En we zitten er nu nog steeds aan vast, terwijl de beperkingen van de ouderwetse typemachine geen rol meer spelen en efficià «ntere systemen mogelijk zijn. De oorzaak hiervan is dat we destijds hebben gekozen voor qwerty. Samengevat door Paul David: â€Å"History matters.† De these van de padafhankelijkheid komt er in het kort dus op neer dat in het verleden gemaakte keuzes invloed hebben op de keuzes die we in het heden (kunnen) maken. Of, zoals Drukker het formuleert: â€Å"als de mens uit de giraf was geà «volueerd en niet uit de mensapen, dan had hij er nu anders uitgezien.† Toegepast op politieke systemen: als we willen weten waarom representatieve democratie zo is zoals ze is, dan zullen we naar haar verleden moeten kijken. Tot zo ver houdt de door Rehfeld geconstateerde analogie stand (we kunnen immers het jammen als het specifieke probleem zien en qwerty als de oplossing). Er is echter sprake van een belangrijk verschil tussen de benadering van de padafhankelijkheid en de probleem-oplossing-benadering van Ankersmit. We maken immers gebruik van de these van padafhankelijkheid als we willen verklaren waarom we nog steeds gebruik maken van een verouderde oplossing voor een probleem dat niet meer aan de orde is of inmiddels op efficià «ntere manieren kan worden opgelost: we gebruiken qwerty, maar het dient nergens meer toe omdat de stalen hamers zijn verdwenen. qwerty staat zo de ingebruikname van efficià «ntere systemen in de weg. En dat is wat Paul David heeft willen verklaren. Ankersmit wil met zijn benadering juist laten zien dat we door aandacht te schenken aan de problemen die aan de vestiging van politieke systemen ten grondslag liggen te weten kunnen komen hoe deze politieke systemen zijn afgestemd. Zoals Ankersmit stelt: de problemen die opgelost moeten worden bepalen de ‘politieke psychologie’ van het systeem. Als we weten wat het op te lossen probleem is, zoals de jammende stalen armen van de typemachine, begrijpen we ook beter hoe de oplossing, qwerty, functioneert. Samengevat: de these van de padafhankelijkheid wil ons verklaren waarom we aan een bepaalde (inefficià «nte) oplossing vastzitten terwijl de benadering van Ankersmit juist duidelijk maakt hoe een bepaalde oplossing functioneert. Een ander punt dat Rehfeld aansnijdt is dat Ankersmit niet de eerste is die aandacht schenkt aan de historische wortels van politieke verschijnselen. Tocqueville, Guizot en Mill hadden hier ook aandacht voor, zo schrijft Rehfeld, en recentelijk hebben ook auteurs als Stephen Holmes en Bernard Manin succesvolle analyses gegeven van het verleden van de representatieve democratie. Rehfeld lijkt Ankersmit te verwijten dat hij niet bijster origineel is met zijn benaderingswijze. Kijken we echter naar bijvoorbeeld The principles of representative government van Manin dan blijkt dit boek een geschiedenis, of beter, een genealogie te bieden van het verschijnsel representatieve democratie. In zijn werk wijst hij op een aantal praktijken en instituties die in de late achttiende eeuw zijn geconcretiseerd, en die hij omschrijft als de ‘principes’ van representatief bestuur. Deze zijn: (1) de representanten worden gekozen door de staatsburgers, (2) de representanten behouden een zek ere onafhankelijkheid ten opzichte van hun kiezers, (3) er is vrijheid van meningsuiting en (4) beleid komt voort uit discussie. Wat betreft de toepassing van het boven beschreven systeem heeft Rehfeld ook een opmerking. Het is immers zo dat als politieke systemen een specifieke oplossing zijn voor specifieke problemen, dat we dan de vraag kunnen stellen voor welke specifieke problemen de totalitaire systemen van de twintigste eeuw de oplossing vormden. Ankersmit lijkt het hiermee eens te zijn: â€Å"No less than all these other political systems – forgotten, ridiculed, or even abhorred – it [democratie, JdB] also is a product of a unique and specific set of historical circumstances and should be assessed accordingly.† En als we vervolgens kijken naar de westerse democratieà «n, dan kunnen we de vraag stellen hoe zij zijn omgegaan met dit totalitaire probleem en hoe zij de oplossing hiervoor in hun ‘politieke psychologie’ hebben geà ¯ncorporeerd. Herinneren we ons echter Ankersmits voorstel, dan wordt duidelijk dat hij ons juist aanspoort de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur te benaderen vanuit haar ‘wortels’. Met andere woorden, de ‘politieke psychologie’ van de systemen die met het totalitarisme werden geconfronteerd was eerder gevormd, namelijk als de romantische poging om de verschillen in de post-revolutionaire samenleving te overbruggen. Democratie door representatie Laten we eens kijken hoe Ankersmit dit voorstel verder uitwerkt. Allereerst maakt hij duidelijk dat de absolute monarchie het antwoord vormde op de religieoorlogen. De staat slaagde erin zich los te maken van de civil society en kon zich daarna verheffen boven het religieuze conflict. Ankersmit is zelfs bereid te stellen dat we wel iets gunstiger mogen oordelen over de absolute monarchie, al was het alleen maar omdat de vestiging van de absolute monarchie de scheiding tussen staat en samenleving teweeg had gebracht. Vervolgens maakt Ankersmit duidelijk dat in 1815 de staat zelf de inzet van politieke strijd was geworden. Aangezien de staat de ‘beloning’ voor de winnaar van dit politieke conflict zou worden, moest de oplossing voor dit conflict elders liggen. Er waren twee mogelijkheden: of de staat zou ten onder gaan in dit politieke conflict, of de staat zou worden gecontroleerd door à ©Ãƒ ©n van de strijdende partijen. Beide oplossingen zouden tot burgeroorlog leide n waardoor het probleem onoplosbaar leek. Vandaar ook dat Tocqueville schreef: â€Å"The organization and the establishment of democracy is the great political problem of our time.† De parlementaire, representatieve democratie was nu een poging om de pijnpunten uit de post-revolutionaire samenleving weg te nemen. De conflicten werden als het ware uit de samenleving genomen en zouden nu in het parlement worden uitgevochten. In het parlement was het enige waar men naar kon streven het compromis, zo stelt Ankersmit: â€Å"†¦ compromise is governed by a kind of political logic other than consensus: for compromise, unlike consensus, retains the possibility of cooperation even when people hold different views and are also determined to maintain these.† Nu is Ankersmit in een situatie beland waar het lijkt dat representatieve democratie een product is van het (romantische) negentiende-eeuwse continent. En dat terwijl het Engelse Parliament toch ‘the mother of all parliaments’ is? Ankersmit erkent dit probleem en wijst op het werk van Michel Albert. Albert maakt in zijn Les deux capitalismes een onderscheid tussen de zogenaamde Angelsaksische democratieà «n (Groot-Brittannià «, Verenigde Staten) en de ‘Rijndemocratieà «n’, oftewel de democratieà «n van het West-Europese continent en Japan. Angelsaksische democratieà «n ingericht als antwoord op te machtige leiders: er was geen sprake van verdeling onder de bevolking, maar van een samenwerken onder de bevolking om de macht van de koning of de president binnen acceptabele grenzen te houden. Daarom is de politieke partij met de meerderheid te zien als de opvolger van de absolute vorst. Het continentale model is er daarentegen op gericht om problemen binn en de samenleving op te lossen door middel van het compromis. Aangezien onze vertegenwoordigers in het parlement compromissen moeten kunnen sluiten, is de autonomie van representanten ten opzichte van de gerepresenteerden een noodzakelijkheid voor het voeren van een zinvolle discussie in het parlement. Zoals Jeremy Bentham schreef is de enige manier om de overwegingen van een representant te beà ¯nvloeden het recht om deze niet te herkiezen. De representatie is immers geen belangenbehartiging (van een segment van de samenleving) en de representant is geen delegaat maar een gevolmachtigde. De afgevaardigde moet met andere woorden compleet vrij zijn in zijn pogingen om compromis te bereiken met de andere spelers in het maatschappelijke conflict: â€Å"it [representatief bestuur, JdB] is an exercise in principled unprincipledness, an exploration of where agreements can be attained, an organization of truths previously thought immiscible.† Mits aan de voorwaarde van autonomie is voldaan kan een representatie daadwerkelijk op een effectiev e wijze optreden in het belang van alle gerepresenteerden. Zoals Sià ©yà ¨s ons weet te vertellen: â€Å"It is thus incontestable that the deputies are at the National Assembly not in order to announce the already formed wishes of their constituents, but to freely deliberate and vote according to their present judgment, enlightened by all the lights the assembly can provide to each person.† Dat betekent dat de kloof tussen de representatie en de gerepresenteerden van daadwerkelijk belang is: â€Å"†¦ legitimate political power wells up †¦ in the hollow between the two groups.† Precies op deze laatste zinsnede heeft Rehfeld commentaar: â€Å"Precisely what does it mean for political power to ‘well up’ in the ‘hollow between . . . groups’? Many of Ankersmit’s arguments are best captured by what Georges Cuvier termed ‘metaphors mistaken for reasoning.’† Door de metafoor te beschouwen als een mislukte rede nering mist Rehfeld precies het punt dat wordt gemaakt. Door te stellen dat legitieme politieke macht in de kloof tussen representatie en gerepresenteerden ontstaat, wordt immers duidelijk dat legitieme politieke macht niet iets is dat à ©Ãƒ ©n van beide groepen toebehoort – en probeer die gedachte maar eens duidelijk te verwoorden zonder gebruik van metaforen. Centraal in de besluitvorming van representatief bestuur staat het uitgangspunt dat beleid voortkomt uit discussie in de representatie, waarna, ‘enlightened by all the lights the assembly can provide,’ het voorstel met de meeste steun doorgang zal vinden. Dit meerderheidsbeginsel is in democratische theorieà «n ingebracht om het (praktische) probleem van unanieme legitimatie te voorkomen, en, zoals John Locke ons meedeelt, sorteert een efficià «ntere beslissingsprocedure: For that which acts any community being only the consent of the individuals of it, and it being necessary to that which is one body to move one way; it is necessary the body should move that way whither the greater force carries it, which is the consent of the majority: or else it is impossible it should continue act or continue one body, one community†¦ De legitimiteit van de uitslag van de beslissingsprocedure ligt in de confrontatie tussen voorstellen. Een legitieme beslissing representeert dus niet een unanieme wil, maar is het resultaat van een weloverwogen meningsvorming van allen. En juist omdat in de politieke cultuur nieuwe, originele ‘organizations of truths’ worden gemaakt, dat wil zeggen, op creatieve wijze oplossingen worden voortgebracht, heeft de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur de historicus het meest te bieden. Nieuwe problemen Zoals gezegd is het het voorstel van Skinner om teksten op het gebied van de politieke filosofie te beschouwen als specifieke antwoorden op specifieke problemen. Laten we nu de methodologie van Skinner eens toepassen op dit hoofdstuk van Ankersmit. Als we dat doen, dan kunnen we immers achterhalen waarom deze tekst is geschreven en welk specifieke doel de auteur met deze tekst voor ogen had. En Ankersmit geeft ook het antwoord op deze vragen. Hij stelt dat tegenwoordig het conflict tussen verschillende belangen in de samenleving is vervangen door verschillende belangen binnen de mensen zelf. We hebben allemaal dezelfde problemen (de problemen zijn dus democratischer geworden) en moeten nu een keuze maken tussen onze belangen op de korte en op de lange termijn. De verschillende politieke partijen zullen zich langs deze nieuwe scheidslijn moeten opstellen willen zij nog relevant zijn voor de burger: het conflict dat zich afspeelt binnen de burger dient ook zichtbaar te zijn in de poli tieke arena wil de representatieve democratie overleven. En dat laatste is volgens Ankersmit van het allergrootste belang: â€Å"For I remain convinced that we cannot do without representative democracy.† Het is echter de vraag of de oude oplossingen geschikt zijn om de nieuwe problemen op te lossen. Wat betreft deze vraag is het werk van de Duitse socioloog Ulrich Beck uitermate interessant. In de moderne industrià «le samenleving speelde het idee van solidariteit een grote rol, in de risicosamenleving heeft men daarentegen aandacht voor risico’s en de minimalisering van deze risico’s. Het draait kortom om de verschillende â€Å"Verteilungslogiken der goods (Gà ¼ter, Einkommen) und bads (Krankheits- und Katastrophenwahrscheinlichkeiten).â€Å" Beck vat de implicaties van de zogeheten Weltrisikogesellschaft in vijf punten samen, waarvan ik de relevante hier zal noemen. In de eerste plaats stelt hij dat individuele landen niet meer in staat zijn om hun problemen alleen op te lossen. De problemen overstijgen nu immers de nationale grenzen, en dat brengt ons bij Becks tweede punt: we zullen moeten samenwerken om deze problemen te kunnen oplossen. Daarnaast is het zo dat deze internationale samenwerking een uitdrukking, een bundeling is van nationale belangen. We kunnen dus voorlopig vaststellen dat er veel problemen zijn die buiten het bereik van individuele natiestaten liggen. Ook Jà ¼rgen Habermas stelde vast dat veel verschijnselen zich nog maar weinig aantrekken van nationale grenzen: â€Å"This broad â€Å"de-bordering† of economy, society, and culture thus touches upon the very existential presuppositions of a state system that had been constructed according to a territorial principle, and still comprises the most important collective actors on the political stage.† Cruciaal bij Habermas is echter dat hij stelt dat staten steeds verder verstrengeld raken in de interdependenties van de mondiale economie en samenleving, waardoor het autonome optreden van staten steeds meer wordt belemmerd en hun democratische gehalte in gevaar zou komen. Beck stelt dat â€Å"Globale Interdependenzrisiken machen den uneingeladenen, nicht-anwesenden Anderen zum Nachbarn, Mitbewohner, Stà ¶renfried in der Falle, zu der die Welt geworden ist. Anerkennte Risiken zwingen zum kommunikativen Brà ¼ckenbau, wo keine oder kaum Brà ¼cken existierenâ€Å" Groepen mensen die geconfronteerd worden met dezelfde risico’s zullen een soort verbondenheid met elkaar voelen, en uit deze verbondenheid kan vervolgens een poging voortkomen om de risico’s te minimaliseren. Met deze gedachte begrijpen we ook waarom Beck schrijft dat â€Å"Risikoà ¶ffentlichkeiten dis-aggregieren und re-aggregieren Demokratie. Sie wiederlegen das nationaalstaatliche Postulat, demzufolge Demokratie nur im Gesellschaftsbehlter des Nationalstaats mà ¶glich ist.â€Å" In het kielzog van de erkenning van risico’s kan dus ook democratie transnationaal worden en zo een antwoord vormen op â€Å"die Krise des rumlich bestimmten Machtsbegriff†¦.†Å" Ook na het achter ons laten van de natiestaat kunnen we volgens Beck democratisch blijven. Representatieve democratie behoort hier echter niet meer tot de mogelijkheden. Zelfs als het door Beck en Habermas geschetste toekomstbeeld correct zou zijn doet dat niets af aan de taak die de historicus van de politieke cultuur op zich heeft genomen. De expertise van deze soort historicus is gedurende tijden van crises, en dus ook gedurende de ‘crisis van het ruimtelijk bepaalde machtsbegrip’ immers van onvergelijkelijk groot belang om de aard van zulk soort crises te kunnen doorgronden en om oplossingen voor dergelijke crises te kunnen aandragen. Conclusie Wat is het nu dat de bestudering van de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur voor mij zo aantrekkelijk maakt? Volgens mij komt deze aantrekkingskracht voort uit de mogelijkheid om tot een combinatie te komen, waarin zowel de intellectuele geschiedenis (in dit geval de geschiedenis van de politieke filosofie) als de geschiedenis van de politieke praktijk, waarin op een creatieve wijze met de realiteiten van de economische, sociale, culturele en internationale wereld moet worden omgegaan, een rol spelen. Deze combinatie maakt het mogelijk om inzichten te verkrijgen in de psychologie van onze hedendaagse democratische systemen. Deze inzichten zijn niet alleen voor de discipline van de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur van belang, maar, zoals we zagen, ook voor andere profielen. Zonder deze inzichten hebben deze profielen grote problemen om bepaalde verschijnselen in de eigen discipline te kunnen begrijpen. Bibliografie Ankersmit, F.R., Denken over geschiedenis. Een overzicht van moderne geschiedfilosofische opvattingen (Groningen 1986). , ‘Representational democracy. An aesthetic approach to conflict and compromise’ Common knowledge 8:1 (2002) 24-46. , Political representation (Stanford 2002). Beck, Ulrich, Was ist Globalisierung? (Frankfurt am Main 1998). , en Edgar Grande, Das kosmopolitische Europa (Frankfurt am Main 2004). Clausewitz, Carl von, On war ed. Michael Howard en Peter Paret (Londen 1993). Drukker, J.W., De revolutie die in haar eigen staart beet. Hoe de economische geschiedenis onze ideeà «n over economische groei veranderde (Utrecht 2003). Habermas, Jà ¼rgen, ‘Toward a cosmopolitan Europe’ Journal of democracy 14:4 (2003) 86-100. Manin, Bernard, ‘On legitimacy and political deliberation’ Political theory 15 (1987) 338-368. , ‘The metamorphoses of representative government’ Economy and society 23 (1994) 133-171. , The principles of representative government (Cambridge 1998). North, Douglass C., ‘Institutions’ Journal of economic perspectives 5:1 (1991) 97-112. Rehfeld, Andrew, ‘Book reviews’ Ethics 113 (2003) 865-868. Skinner, Quentin, ‘Meaning and understanding in the history of ideas’ History and theory 8 (1969) 3-53. 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